INTRODUCTION:

Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell multiplication which can occur in any living tissue in any site in the human body (1). Since many of these alterations might never have been observed before and might not necessarily reside in coding regions of the genome, whole-genome sequencing is increasingly seen as the only rigorous approach that can find all the variants in a cancer genome (2). Among all these alterations are a select few that drive the progression of the disease (3).

Cancer results from a series of molecular events that fundamentallyalter the normal properties of cells. In cancer cells the normal controlsystems that prevent cell overgrowth and the invasion of other tissues are disabled (4).

These altered cells divide and grow in the presence ofsignals that normally inhibit cell growth; therefore, they no longer require special signals to induce cell growth and division (5).

The availability of the database of full sequences of approximately 3 billion base pairs and approximately 30,000 genes in human DNA will lead to a better understanding of physiological and pathophysiological changes in human body (6). A third type of gene associated with cancer is the group involved in DNA repair and maintenance of chromosome structure (7). is that billions of independent sequence reads are generated in parallel, with each read derived from a single molecule of DNA (8).

Genetic alterations have the potential to impact all cellular processes, including chromatin structure, DNA methylation, RNA splice variants, RNA editing, and microRNA (mi RNA) to name but a few. Real progress in cancer research will come through the measurement and integrated analysis of all these interdependent processes (9).

Types of Cancer:

Cancer is divided into various categories as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Classification of Cancer

A. Sarcoma:

Cancerous (malignant) tumors of the connective tissue are called “sarcosomas”. The term Sarcoma comes from a Greek word meaning fleshy growth. Normal connective tissue include, fat, blood vessels nerve, bones, muscle, deep skin tissue, and cartilage. sarcomas are divided into two main group ,bone sarcomas and soft tissue sarcoma (11).

Types of sarcoma:

1. Angiosarcoma can start in blood vessels (hemangiosarcomas) or in lymph vessels (lymphangiosarcomas). These tumors sometimes start in a part of the body that has been treated with radiation. Angiosarcomas are sometimes seen in the breast after radiation therapy and in limbs with lymphedema 5 (12).

2. Clear cell sarcoma is a rare cancer that often starts in tendons of the arms or legs. Under the microscope, it has some features of malignant melanoma 6, a type of cancer that starts in pigment-producing skin cells. How cancers with these features start in parts of the body other than the skin is not known.

3. Desmoplastic small round cell tumor is a rare sarcoma of teens and young adults. It's found most often in the abdomen (belly) (13).

4. Epithelioid sarcoma most often starts in tissues under the skin of the hands, forearms, feet, or lower legs. Teens and young adults are often affected.

5. Fibromyxoid sarcoma, low-grade is a slow-growing cancer that most often starts (14).

Symptoms of sarcoma:

A sarcoma is a cancer that arise transformed cell of mesenchyma (connective tissue) origin. connective tissue is a broad term, that include bone, cartilage, fat, vascuular, or hematopoietic tissue, these type of tissueand sarcomas can arise in any of any of these type of tissue (15).

B. Carcinoma:

A carcinoma is defined as a malignant new growth that arises from epithelium, found in skin more commonly the lining of the body organs, for example: breast, prostate, lung, stomach, or bowel (16).

Types of carcinoma:

1. Basal cell carcinoma.

2. Squamous cell carcinoma.

3. Renal cell carcinoma.

4. Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)

5. Invasive ductal carcinoma.

6. Adenocarcinoma (17).

1. Basal cell carcinoma:

Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are the more common malignancies to affect the temporal bone. Basal cell carcinoma is thought to occur secondary to actinic exposure, and commonly involves the external ear or ear canal or both. Squamous cell carcinoma can arise primarily from the external canal or middle ear (18).

2. Squamous cell carcinoma:

Squamous cell carcinoma is the second most common skin cancer, with nearly 600,000 new cases diagnosed each year in the United States (19). Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the second most common form of skin cancer. It’s usually found on areas of the body damaged by UV rays from the sun or tanning beds. Sun-exposed skin includes the head, neck, chest, upper back, ears, lips, arms, legs, and hands (20).

Symptoms of squamous cell carcinoma:

1. A firm, red nodule

2. A flat sore with a scaly crust

3. A new sore or raised area on an old scar or ulcer

4. A rough, scaly patch on your lip that may evolve to an open sore

5. A red sore or rough patch inside your mouth

6. A red, raised patch or wart like sore on or in the anus or on your genitals (21).

3. Renal cell carcinoma:

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) represents a heterogeneous group of tumors, the most common of which is clear cell adenocarcinoma. RCC accounts for 3% of adult tumors. The incidence has increased more than 30% over the past two decades (22).

Symptoms:

1. A lump in the abdomen

2. Blood in the urine

3. Unexplained weight loss

4. Loss of appetite

5. Fatigue

6. Vision problems

7. Persistent pain in the side

8. Excessive hair growth (in women) (23).

4. Ductal carcinoma in situ:

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is the presence of abnormal cells inside a milk duct in the breast.DCIS is considered the earliest form of breast cancer. DCIS is noninvasive, meaning it hasn't spread out of the milk duct and has a low risk of becoming invasive (24).

5. Invasive ductal carcinoma:

Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC), also known as infiltrating ductal carcinoma, is cancer that began growing in a milk duct and has invaded the fibrous or fatty tissue of the breast outside of the duct. IDC is the most common form of breast cancer, representing 80 percent of all breast cancer diagnoses (25).

6. Adenocarcinoma:

Adenocarcinoma is a type of cancer that develops in cell lining glandular type of internal organ such as lungs, colon, breast, prostate, stomach pancreas and cervix. Another type of adenocarcinoma, account for 10-15 % of all adenocarcinoma and is particular to aggressive carcinomas that are comparised of at list sixty percent mucus (26).

C. Myeloma:

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a hematologic malignancy characterized by the proliferation of monoclonal plasma cells in the bone marrow that synthesize abnormal amounts of immunoglobulin (Ig) or Ig fragments (27).

Myeloma, also known as multiple myeloma, is a blood cancer arising from plasma cells. At any one time there are around 17,500 people living with myeloma in the UK. It accounts for 15 per cent of blood cancers, and two per cent of all cancers. Myeloma mainly affects those over the age of 65; however it has been diagnosed in people much younger (28).

Types of myeloma:

There are two main subtypes of multiple myeloma:

1. Hyperdiploid (HMM)- Myeloma cells have more chromosomes than normal. This type accounts for about 45% of multiple myeloma cases and is usually less aggressive.

2. Non-hyperdiploid or hypodiploid- These myeloma cells have fewer chromosomes than normal. This more aggressive type affects about 40% of people with disease (29).

A. Lymphoma:

Lymphomas are a heterogeneous group of malignancies that arise from lymphocytes. Since the first report of lymphoma by Thomas Hodgkin in 1832, lymphomas have been grouped into either Hodgkin’s lymphoma or non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL). In 2009, there were 601,180 patients with lymphoma (148,460 Hodgkin’s lymphoma and 452,720 NHL) in the United States alone (30).

Types of lymphoma:

There are two types of lymphoma that is hodgkin and non hodgkin, which are also divided into various classes as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Classification of Lymphoma

B. Hodgkin lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma is a clonal, malignantlympho proliferation originating from germinal center B cell. The malignancell usually represent only a small minority (0.1% to 2%) of the total cellular population of involved tissues (31).

The World Health Organization (WHO) classification discerns two major groups of Hodgkin lymphoma:

C. Classical Hodgkin disease:

Classical Hodgkin lymphoma (CHL) constitutes about 95% of all HL cases in the United States and Europe. CHL is a clonal B-cell lymphoma characterized by the proliferation of a minor population of mononuclear Hodgkin and multinucleated Reed–Sternberg (HRS) cells admixed with an abundance of reactive infiltrate including various inflammatory cells.

D. NLPHL: (Nodular Lymphocyte Hodgkin Lymphoma):

Nodular Lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin Lymphoma (NLPHL) is a monoclonal B-cell lymphoma characterized by nodular pattern, presence of sparse large pleomorphic lymphoid (LP) cells admixed with abundant B-lymphocytes that reside in an expanded meshwork of follicular dendritic cells. It most commonly presents as limited nodal disease involving peripheral lymph nodes above or below the diaphragm (32).

E. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma:

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is cancer that originates in your lymphatic system, the disease-fighting network spread throughout your body. In non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, tumors develop from lymphocytes a type of white blood cell (33).

F. Burkitt lymphoma:

Burkitt lymphoma is a rare but highly aggressive (fast-growing) B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). This disease may affect the jaw, central nervous system, bowel, kidneys, ovaries, or other organs. Burkitt lymphoma may spread to the central nervous system (34).

G. Lymphoblastic lymphoma:

The lymphatic system is an important part of the body’s immune system that helps us fight infection. It is composed of the lymph nodes, thymus (a gland behind the breast bone), spleen and bone marrow, which are connected by tiny lymph vessel. Lymph is a colorless fluid that circulates in the lymphatic system. It contains lymphocytes which are white blood cells that fight infection. There are 2 types of lymphocytes B cell and T cell (35).

H. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma:

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) is a rare type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), and one of the subtypes of T cell lymphoma. ALCL comprises about one percent of all NHLs and approximately 16 percent of all T cell lymphomas (36).

Novel drug delivery system:

“Novel Drug delivery System (NDDS) refers to the formulations, systems and technologies for transporting a pharmaceutical compound in the body as it is needed to safely achieve its desired therapeutic effects. Drug delivery systems (DDS), are based on approaches that are interdisciplinary and that combine pharmaceutics, bio conjugate chemistry, and molecular biology (37).

Types of novel drug delivery system:

Types of novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 3.

Fig 3: Types of NDDS

1. Liposome:

Liposome are a novel drug delivery system (NDDS), they are vesicular structures consisting of bilalyers which form spontaneously when phospholipids are dispersed in water. They are microscopic vesicles in which an aqueous volume is entirely enclosed by a membrane composed of lipid bilayers. NDDS aims to deliver the drug at a rate directed by the needs of the body during the period of treatment and direct the place of action. Liposome are colloidal spheres of cholesterol non-toxic surfactants, sphingolipids, glycolipids, long chain fatty acids and even membrane proteins and drug molecules or it is also called vesicular system. It differs in size, composition and charge and drug carrier loaded with variety of molecules such as small drug molecules, proteins, nucleotides or plasmids(38).Structure of liposomein novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 4.

Figure: - 4 Structure of liposome

2. Phytosome:

Phytosomes is a novel approach of drug delivery system and it is advantageous in delivering the herbal drug at predetermined rate, delivery of drug at the site of action, Minimizes the toxic effects, Increase in bioavailability of drugs, Control of the distribution of drug is achieved by incorporate the drug in carrier system or in changing the structure of the drug at molecular level, Herbal drug are becoming more popular in the modern world for their applications and safety aspects. Phytosomes is newly introduced patented technologies by Indian to developed and incorporate the standardized plant extracts. The phytosomes process produces a little cell because of that the valuable components of the herbal extract are protected from destruction by digestive secretions and gut bacteria (39). Structure of Phytosome in novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: Structure of Phytosome

3. Ethosomes:

“Ethosomes are ethanolic liposomes”. Ethosomes can be defined as noninvasive delivery carriers that enable drugs to reach deep into the skin layers and/or the systemic circulation. These are soft, malleable vesicles tailored for enhanced delivery of active agents. The vesicles have been well known for their importance in cellular communication and particle transportation for many years. Vesicles would also allow controlling the release rate of drug over an extended time, keeping the drug shielded from immune response or other removal systems and thus be able to release just the right amount of drug and keep that concentration constant for longer periods of time. One of the major advances in vesicle research was the finding of a vesicle derivative, known as an Ethosomes(40). Structure of Ethosome in novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Structure of Ethosomes

4. Niosome:

A Niosome is a non-ionic surfactant-based liposome. Niosomes are formed mostly by cholesterol incorporation as an excipient. Other excipient can also be used. Niosomes have more penetrating capability than the previous preparations of emulsions. They are structurally similar to Liposomes in having a bilayer, however, the materials used to prepare niosomes make them more stable and thus niosomes offer many more advantages over liposomes1, 2. The sizes of niosomes are microscopic and lie in nanometric scale. The particle size ranges from 10nm-100nm (41). Structure of Niosome in novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Structure of Niosome

5. Transferosome:

They are capable of delivering low as well as high molecular weight drugs. Transferosome are ultradeformable vesicles possessing an aqueous core surrounded by the complex lipid bilayer. Local composition and Interdependency of shape of the bilayer makes the vesicle both self regulating and self optimizing. Due to their deformability, transferosomes are good candidates for the non delivery of small, medium and large sized one’s. Transferosomes can deform and pass through narrow constriction. 5-10 times less than their own diameter without measurable loss’ flexibility can be achieved by mixing suitable surface active components in the proper ratios. (42). Structure of Transferosome in novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 8.

Figur e8: Structure of Transferosome

6. Dendrimer:

Dendrimers are repetitively branched molecules, which constitute a core and spherical three-dimensional morphology. A single functional entity of the dendrimer is called a dendron, where the drug molecules can be tethered on the surface of dendrimer and its sprouting branches. On the basis of growth process of the dendrimers, these can be classified according to their generation number, such as G_0.5, G₁, G₂, G₃, G₄, and G₅. Dendrimers can be synthesized by both divergent and convergent methods (43). Structure of Dendrimer in novel drug delivery system had shown in figure 9.

Figure 9: Structure of Dendrimer

Nanotechnology:

Nanotechnology is commonly considered to deal with particle in the size range <100 nm, and with the nanomaterials manufactured using nanoparticle. The approaches to the toxicology testing, and assessment of the human and environmental risks are undergoing rapid development. One risk assessment area of strong interest is the extent to which nanoparticle and nanomaterials toxicity can be extrapolated from existing data for particles and fibers (44).

Nanoparticle:

Nanoparticles (also known as ultrafine particles 225) are defined as having one structural dimension of less than 100nm, making them comparable in size to subcellular structures, including cell organelles or biological macromolecules, 222 thereby enabling their ready incorporation into biological systems (45).

Classification of Nanoparticle:

Nanoparticle are classified based on one, two, or three dimension.

1. One dimension nanoparticle:

One dimension such as thin film or manufactured surfacehas been used for decades in electronics, chemistry and engineering. Production of thin film (size 1 to 100nm) or monolayer is common place in the field of solarcell or catalysis. This thin film is using in different technological application, including information storage system, chemical or biological system, and fiber optic system magneto optic and optical device (46).

2. Two dimension nanoparticle:

Carbon nano-tubes –Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical large molecule consisting of a hexagonal arrangement of hybridized carbon atoms, which may by formed by rolling up a single sheet of grapheme (single walled carbon nanotubes, SWCNTs) or by rolling up multiple sheets of graphene (multiwalled carbon nanotubes, MWCNTs) (42). The nanotubes may consist of one up to tens and hundreds of concentric shells of carbons with adjacent shells separation of ∼0.34 nm. The carbon network of the shells is closely related to the honeycomb arrangement of the carbon atoms in the graphite sheets. The amazing mechanical and electronic properties of the nanotubes stem in their quasi-one-dimensional (1D) structure and the graphite-like arrangement of the carbon atoms in the shells (47).

3. Three dimension nanoparticle:

Fullerence-fullerence are spherical cages containing from 28 to more than 1000 carbon atom, contain C60. This is hollow ball composed of interconnected carbon pentagon and hexagon resembling a soccer ball. Fullerence are class of material displaying unique physical properties. They can be subjected to extreme pressure and regain their original shape when the pressure is released these molecules do not combine with each other, thus giving them major potential for application as lubricants. They have interesting electrical properties, and it has been suggested to use them in the electronic field ranging from data storage to production of solar cell Fullerence (48).

4. Dendrimer:

Dendrimer are defined as globular, repeatedly branched, macromolecular structures having three major components, such as focal core, peripheral layer comprising of different functional groups, and interior layer composed of several building block (46). Dendrimers are well-defined, multivalent molecules having branched structure of nanometer size. Dendrimers possess a distinct molecular architecture that consists of three different domains: (i) a central core (ii) branches (iii) terminal functional groups, present at the outer surface ofthe macromolecule, that dictates the nucleic acid complexation or drug entrapment efficacy. Dendrimersrepresents a new class of controlled-structure polymers with nanometric dimensions. Dendrimersused in drugdelivery and imaging are usually 10 to 100 nm in diameter with multiple functional groups on their surface, rendering them ideal carriers for targeted drug delivery. The structure and function ofdendrimers has been well studied. Contemporary dendrimers can be highly specialized, encapsulating functional molecules inside their core. They are considered to be basicelements for large-scale synthesis of organic and inorganic nanostructures with dimensions of 1 to 100 nm. They are compatible with organic structure such as DNAand can also be fabricated to metallic nanostructure and nanotubesor to possess an encapsulation capacity (49).

5. Quantum dots:

Quantum dots are colloidal florescent semiconductor Nano-crystal, roughly spherical and typically have unique optical, electronic and photophyscial properties that make them appealing in promising application in biological labeling, imaging and detection and as efficient fluorescence resonance energy transfer donors.

Quantum dots are fluorescent nanocrystals, 1–100nm in size, with unique optical and electrical properties, and with a synthetic history of approximately 20 years. Quantum dots commonly consist of a metalloid crystalline core (e.g., cadmium selenide) surrounded by a shell (e.g., zinc sulfide). The fluorescent properties of quantum dots offer a number of advantages for their use in optical imaging. The brightness of quantum dots is 10–100 times greater than most organic dyes or proteins (50).

Preparation of Nanoparticle:

1. Emulsion solvent evaporation method:

Emulsion evaporation has been used for a long time to form polymeric NPs from as prepared polymers. The method is based on the emulsification of polymer organic solution into a water phase, followed by organic solvent evaporation. The polymer is first dissolved in a suitable solvent (e.g., ethyl acetate, chloroform, or methylene chloride). The organic phase is poured into the continuous phase (aqueous phase) in which a surfactant is dissolved to impart stability to the emulsion. Emulsification is carried out under high-shear force to reduce the size of the emulsion droplet. This process will largely determine the final particle size. After the formation of emulsification, the system evaporates the organic solvent under vacuum, which leads to polymer precipitation and Nano-particle formation (51).

2. Double emulsion and evaporation method:

The emulsion and evaporation method suffer from the limitation of poor entrapment of hydrophilic drugs. Therefore to encapsulate hydrophilic drug the double emulsion technique is employed, which involves the addition of aqueous drug solutions to organic polymer solution under vigorous stirring to form w/o emulsions. This w/o emulsion is added into second aqueous phase with continuous stirring to form the w/o/w emulsion. The emulsion then subjected to solvent removal byevaporation and nano particles can be isolated by centrifugation at high speed. The formed nanoparticles must be thoroughly washed before lyophilisation In this method the amount of hydrophilic drug to be incorporated, the concentration of stabilizer used, the polymer that affect the characterization of Nano particles (52).

3. Salting out method:

Salting out is another method for the fabrication of PLGA NPs. Firstly, the PLGA is dissolved intothe organic solutions (oil phase) which are usually water-miscible. Typical solvents are tetrahydrofuran (THF) and acetone. The aqueous phase consists of the surfactant and saturated solution of electrolyte. The electrolytes should not be soluble in the organic solvent. Typically, the most commonly used saltsare magnesium chloride hexahydrate with a concentration of 60% (w/w) or magnesium acetatetetra hydrate which is normally used with a ratio of 1:3 (polymer to salt) The oil phase is emulsiﬁedin an aqueous phase, under strong shearing force by overhead mechanical stirrer The obvious difference between the emulsion diffusion method and salting out method is that there is no solventdiffusion step for the latter one due to the existence of salts. In order to decrease the ionic strength in the electrolyte, the distilled water is added into the formed O/W emulsion under magnetic stirrer. At the same time, the hydrophilic organic solvents migrate from the oil phase to aqueous phase, whichresults in the formation of the NPs. Finally, the salting out agent is eliminated by centrifugation andthe samples are puriﬁed (53).

4. Emulsion diffusion method:

The emulsification-diffusion (E-D) method was proposed as an alternative to avoid the toxicity-solvent problems caused by the emulsification-evaporation; additionally, it is simple implementation, high reproducibility and versatility have been confirmed. This method is one of the first techniques analyzed from a mechanistic point of view and it has been used to encapsulate several kinds of drugs, including peptides and proteins (54).

5. Solvent displacement method:

Solvent displacement method involves preparation of polymeric NPs based on the nanoprecipitation and subsequently hardens the polymer upon elimination of volatile solvent first; preformed polymer, drug, and hydrophobic surfactant are precipitated in the organic solution containing partially polar water soluble solvent, such as, acetone or ethanol. The mixture is then poured or injected into saturated aqueous solution comprised of surfactant via moderate stirring. This is to assure formation of initial thermodynamics equilibrium in both solutions. In addition, mixing both organic and aqueous phases lowers the interfacial tension between the medium, resulting in rapid diffusion of organic solvent into water. Formations of NPs are materialized by rapid solvent diffusion. The solvent is eliminated from the suspension under reduced pressure followed by centrifugation and lyophilization forstorage (55).

6. Nanoprecipitation:

In the nanoprecipitation method, an organic solution of the polymer is emulsified in an aqueous solution (with or without a surfactant). Then the organic solvent is removed by stirring (with or without vacuum) and this process allows nanoparticle formation (56). Structure of Nanoprecipitationhad shown in figure 10.

Figure10: - Structure of Nanoprecipitation

Application of Nanoparticle:

1. The use of polymer coated iron oxide nanoparticles to break up clusters of bacteria, possibly allowing more effective treatment of chronic bacterial infections (56)

2. Gold nanoparticles are widely used in immunohistochemistry to identify protein-protein interaction (57).

3. Nanotechnology cancer treatments may lead to destroying cancer tumors with minimal damage to healthy tissue and organs, as well as the detection and elimination of cancer cells before they form tumors (58).

4. Nanoparticles are mixed with polymer chain to improve the gas barrier properties, as well as, temperature, humidity resistance of packaging (59).

5. Some of the Nano particles that have entered into the arena of controlling plant diseases are nanoforms of carbon, silver, silica and alumina-silicates (60).

6. The first of these is the use of nanoparticles as UV filters. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are the main compounds used in these applications.

Advantage of Nanoparticle:

1 Increased bioavailability

2 Dose proportionality.

3 Smaller dose form.

4 Increased surface area results in a faster dissolution of the active agent in an

5 Aqueous environment, such as the human body. Faster dissolution generally

6 Equates greater absorption and bioavailability.

7 Smaller drug doses less toxicity.

8 Reduction in fed/ fasted variability (61).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

Authors want to acknowledge Dr. A. K. Jha. Principal of Shri Shankaracharya Technical Campus, SSGI, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh for providing facilities to compete work in stipulated period of time.

CONCLUSION:

Nanotechnology products have become considerably imbedded in most every aspect of daily life. It is also clearly apparent now that the benefits of nanotechnology are far reaching. Unfortunately, not only are the precise mechanisms through which inhaled particles exert systemic biologic effects unknown, but also the scope of biologic targets and/or end points is greater when nanoparticles are considered. By definition, this later observation may be due largely because of particle size, but surface chemistry of nanoparticles must also be taken into account in future studies. The ultrafine particles used in the current study represent manufactured particles in the "nano" size range, and after pulmonary deposition, they exerted a robust biologic effect. It is unclear at this time what the most appropriate dose metric is for nanoparticles, but it is apparent from our studies and many others that mass does not consistently appear to be the ideal metric.

REFERENCES:

1. Agarwal SP, Rao YN, Gupta S. Fifty years of cancer control in India. Directorate general of health services, Ministry of health and family welfare, Government of India. New Delhi. 2002 Nov.

2. Tuna M, Amos CI. Genomic sequencing in cancer. Cancer Letters. 2013 Nov 1; 340(2):161-70.

3. Soon WW, Hariharan M, Snyder MP. High‐throughput sequencing for biology and medicine. Molecular Systems Biology. 2013 Jan 1; 9(1).

4. Schneider KA. Counseling about cancer: strategies for genetic counseling. John Wiley and Sons; 2011 Oct 26.

5. McCook A. Lifting the Screen. Scientific American. 2002; 286(6): 16-7.

6. Guastadisegni C, Colafranceschi M, Ottini L, Dogliotti E. Microsatellite instability as a marker of prognosis and response to therapy: a meta-analysis of colorectal cancer survival data. European Journal of Cancer. 2010 Oct 1; 46(15): 2788-98.

7. Wilson JF. Elucidating the DNA damage pathway. Scientist-Philadelphia-. 2002;16(2): 39-40.

8. Hübner S, Efthymiadis A. Recent progress in histochemistry and cell biology. Histochemistry and Cell Biology. 2012 Apr 1; 137(4): 403-57.

9. Hinduri J, Aiden EL. The expanding scope of DNA sequencing. Nature Biotechnology. 2012 Nov; 30(11): 1084.

10. International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome. Nature. 2004 Oct; 431(7011): 931.

11. Brennan M, Lewis J, editors. Diagnosis and Management of soft tissue sarcoma. CRC Press; 2002 Jan 18.

12. Fedok FG, Levin RJ, Maloney ME, Tipirneni K. Angiosarcoma: current review American Journal of Otolaryngology. 1999 Jul 1; 20(4): 223-31

13. James WD, Elston D, Berger T. Andrew's Diseases of the Skin E-Book: Clinical Dermatology-Expert Consult-Online and Print. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2011 Mar 21

14. Wu JM, Montgomery E. Classification and pathology. Surgical Clinics of North America. 2008 Jun 1; 88(3): 483-520.

15. Stout AP. Mesenchymoma, the mixed tumor of mesenchymal derivatives. Annals of Surgery. 1948 Feb; 127(2): 278.

16. Alcaraz I, Cerroni L, Ruetten A, and Kutzner H, Requital L. Cutaneous metastases from internal malignancies: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical review. The American Journal of Dermatopathology. 2012 Jun 1; 34(4): 347-93.

17. Hayes MM, Peterse JL, Yavuz E, Vischer GH, Eusebi V. Squamous cell carcinoma in situ of the breast: a light microscopic and immunohistochemical study of a previously zundescribed lesion. The American Journal of Surgical Pathology. 2007 Sep 1; 31(9):1414-9.

18. Schwartz RA. Basal cell carcinoma. Skin Cancer Recognition and Management. 2008 Apr 30: 87-104

19. Preston DS, Stern RS. Nonmelanoma cancers of the skin. New England Journal of Medicine. 1992 Dec 3; 327(23): 1649-62.

20. Yanofsky VR, Mercer SE, Phelps RG. Histopathological variants of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a review. Journal of Skin Cancer. 2011; 2011

21. Barankin B, Frieman A. Derm Notes: Clinical Dermatology Pocket Guide. FA Davis; 2006 May 1.

22. Kirkali Z, Öbek C. Clinical aspects of renal cell carcinoma. EAU Update Series. 2003 Dec 1;1(4): 189-96.

23. Griffith HW, Moore SW, Yoder K. Complete Guide to Symptoms, Illness and Surgery. TarcherPerigee; 2012

24. Osuntokun OT, Ojo RO. Comparative study on Breast Cancer.

25. Akram M, Ibex M, Daniyal M, Khan AU. Awareness and current knowledge of breast cancer. Biologi Cooper GM. Elements of human cancer. Jones and Bartlett Learning; 1992.cal research. 2017 Dec 1;50(1):30.

26. Szczepek AJ, Seeberger K, Wizniak J, Mant MJ, Belch AR, Pilarski LM. A high frequency of circulating B cells share clonotypicIg heavy-chain VDJ rearrangements with autologous bone marrow plasma cells in multiple myeloma, as measured by single-cell and in situ reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Blood. 1998 Oct 15; 92(8): 2844-55.

27. Abed H, Burke M, Nizarali N. Oral and dental management for people with multiple myeloma: clinical guidance for dental care providers. Dental Update. 2018 May 2; 45(5): 383-99.

28. Li Y, Wang X, Zheng H, Wang C, Minvielle S, Magrangeas F, Avet-Loiseau H, Shah PK, Zhang Y, Munshi NC, Li C. Classify hyperdiploidy status of multiple myeloma patients using gene expression profiles. PloS one. 2013 Mar 15; 8(3): e58809.

29. Banerjee D. Recent advances in the pathobiology of Hodgkin's lymphoma: potential impact on diagnostic, predictive, and therapeutic strategies. Advances in Hematology. 2011; 2011.

30. Pinkus GS, Pinkus JL, Langhoff E, Matsumura F, Yamashiro S, Mosialos G, Said JW. Fascin, a sensitive new marker for Reed-Sternberg cells of hodgkin's disease. Evidence for a dendritic or B cell derivation?. The American Journal of Pathology. 1997 Feb;150(2): 543.z

31. Quintanilla-Martinez L, de Jong D, de Mascarel A, Hsi ED, Kluin P, Natkunam Y, Parrens M, Pileri S, Ott G. Gray zones around diffuse large B cell lymphoma. Conclusions based on the workshop of the XIV meeting of the European Association for Hematopathology and the Society of Hematopathology in Bordeaux, France. Journal of Hematopathology. 2009 Nov 1; 2(4): 211-36.

32. Abdullah MR, Alabassi HM, Sabbah MA. Clonality assay of IGH gene rearrangement in Iraqi patients with non hodgkin's lymphoma using FFPE tissue. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2019 Mar 1;11(3):1118-25.

33. McClain KL, Joshi VV, Murphy SB. Cancers in children with HIV infection. Hematology/oncology clinics of North America. 1996 Oct 1;10(5):1189-201.

34. Parham P. The immune system. Garland Science; 2014 Oct 1.

35. Savage KJ, Harris NL, Vose JM, Ullrich F, Jaffe ES, Connors JM, Rimsza L, Pileri SA, Chhanabhai M, Gascoyne RD, Armitage JO. ALK− anaplastic large-cell lymphoma is clinically and immunophenotypically different from both ALK+ ALCL and peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified: report from the International Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma Project. Blood. 2008 Jun 15;111(12): 5496-504.7.

36. Bhowmik D, Duraivel S, Kumar KS. Recent trends in challenges and opportunities in transdermal drug delivery system. The Pharma Innovation. 2012 Dec 1; 1(10, Part A):9

37. Yadav D, Sandeep K, Pandey D, Dutta RK. Liposomes for drug delivery. J. Biotechnol. Biomater. 2017; 7: 276.

38. Bhokare SG, Dongaonkar CC, Lahane SV, Salunke PB, Sawale VS, Thombare MS. Herbal Novel Drug Deliver: A Review. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016 Jun 14;5(8): 593-611.

39. Patel S. Ethosomes: A promising tool for transdermal delivery of drug. Pharma Info. Net. 2007; 5(3)

40. Chandu VP, Arunachalam A, Jeganath S, Yamini K, Tharangini K, Chaitanya G. Niosomes: a novel drug delivery system. International journal of novel trends in pharmaceutical sciences. 2012 Feb; 2(1): 25-31.

41. Modi CD, Bharadia PD. Transfersomes: new dominants for transdermal drug delivery. Am J Pharm Tech Res. 2012; 2(3): 71-91.

42. Tomalia DA, Naylor AM, Goddard III WA. Starburst dendrimers: molecular‐level control of size, shape, surface chemistry, topology, and flexibility from atoms to macroscopic matter. Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 1990 Feb; 29(2):138-75.

43. Warheit DB, Sayes CM, Reed KL, Swain KA. Health effects related to nanoparticle exposures: environmental, health and safety considerations for assessing hazards and risks. Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2008 Oct 1; 120(1): 35-42.

44. Mahmoudi M, Azadmanesh K, Shokrgozar MA, Journeay WS, Laurent S. Effect of nanoparticles on the cell life cycle. Chemical Reviews. 2011 Mar 14; 111(5): 3407-32.

45. . Pal SL, Jana U, Manna PK, Mohanta GP, Manavalan R. Nanoparticle: An overview of preparation and characterization. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. 2011 Nov;1(6):228-34.

46. Pal SL, Jana U, Manna PK, Mohanta GP, Manavalan R. Nanoparticle: An overview of preparation and characterization. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. 2011 Nov; 1(6):228-34.5.

47. Dresselhaus MS, Dresselhaus G, Eklund PC. Science of fullerenes and carbon nanotubes: Their Properties and Applications. Elsevier; 1996 Mar 20.

48. Walter MV, Malkoch M. Simplifying the synthesis of dendrimers: accelerated approaches. Chemical Society Reviews. 2012; 41(13): 4593-609.

49. Comparelli R, Curri ML, Cozzoli PD, Striccoli M. Optical biosensing based on metal and semiconductor colloidal nanocrystals. Nanomaterials for Biosensors. 2007 Feb 12:123.

50. Quintanar-Guerrero D, Allémann E, Fessi H, Doelker E. Preparation techniques and mechanisms of formation of biodegradable nanoparticles from preformed polymers. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 1998 Jan 1; 24(12): 1113-28.

51. Jain R, Shah NH, Malick AW, Rhodes CT. Controlled drug delivery by biodegradable poly (ester) devices: different preparative approaches. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 1998 Jan 1; 24(8): 703-27

52. Wang Y, Li P, Truong-Dinh Tran T, Zhang J, Kong L. Manufacturing techniques and surface engineering of polymer based nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery to cancer. Nanomaterials. 2016 Feb; 6(2): 26

53. Piñón-Segundo E, Llera-Rojas VG, Leyva-Gómez G, Urbán-Morlán Z, Mendoza-Muñoz N, Quintanar-Guerrero D. The emulsification-diffusion method to obtain polymeric nanoparticles: Two decades of research. In Nanoscale Fabrication, Optimization, Scale-Up and Biological Aspects of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology 2018 Jan 1 (pp. 51-83). William Andrew Publishing.

54. Ahlin Grabnar P, Kristl J. The manufacturing techniques of drug-loaded polymeric nanoparticles from preformed polymers. Journal of microencapsulation. 2011 Jun 1; 28(4): 323-35.

55. Gupta AK, Naregalkar RR, Vaidya VD, Gupta M. Recent advances on surface engineering of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and their Biomedical Applications.

56. Salata OV. Applications of nanoparticles in biology and medicine. Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 2004 Dec;2(1):3.

57. Castano AP, Demidova TN, Hamblin MR. Mechanisms in photodynamic therapy: part three—photosensitizer pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, tumor localization and modes of tumor destruction. Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy. 2005 Jun 1; 2(2): 91-106.

58. Siracusa V, Rocculi P, Romani S, Dalla Rosa M. Biodegradable polymers for food packaging: a review. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2008 Dec 1; 19(12): 634-43.

59. Newman MD, Stotland M, Ellis JI. The safety of nanosized particles in titanium dioxide–and zinc oxide–based sunscreens. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2009 Oct 1; 61(4): 685-92.

60. Carrier RL, Miller LA, Ahmed I. The utility of cyclodextrins for enhancing oral bioavailability. Journal of Controlled Release. 2007 Nov 6; 123(2): 78-99.

61. Sahu P, Mishra S, Sahu GK, Sharma H, Kaur CD. Formulation and Characterization of Resorcinol Gel. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Technology. 2019 Sep 30;11(3): 159-63.

62. Sahu K, Pathak R, Agrawal N, Banjare P, Sharma H, Sahu G. A Review of the Novel Drug Delivery System used in the Treatment of Cancer. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Technology. 2019 Sep 30;11(3):199-205.

63. Mandavi N, Ansari N, Bharti R, Kader N, Sahu GK, Sharma H. Microemulsion: A Potential Novel Drug Delivery System. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Technology. 2018; 10(4): 266-71.

64. Kader N, Ansari N, Bharti R, Mandavi N, Sahu GK, Jha AK, Sharma H. Novel Approaches for Colloidal Drug Delivery System: Nanoemulsion. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Technology. 2018; 10(4): 253-8.

65. Sharma H, Sahu U, Kumar G, Kaur CD. A Spectrum of Skin Cancer in Kashmir Valley of India: Kangri Cancer. Journal of Atoms and Molecules. 2019; 9(1): 1196-205.

66. Yesmin R, Karmakar PC, Ali H, Biswas KK. Membrane stabilizing and thrombolytic activities of methanolic extract of TrichosanthesdioicaRoxb. Shoot. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2017; 6(5): 2500-2.

67. Islam M, Hoshen MA, Ayshasiddeka FI, Yeasmin T. Antimicrobial, membrane stabilizing and thrombolytic activities of ethanolic extract of Curcuma zedoariaRosc. Rhizome. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2017; 6(5): 38-41.

68. Sahu P, Mishra S, Sahu GK, Sharma H, Kaur CD. Formulation and Characterization of Resorcinol Peel. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2019 Sep 30; 11(3): 159-63.

Received on 06.04.2020 Modified on 26.04.2020

Res. J. Pharma. Dosage Forms and Tech.2020; 12(2): 115-124.

DOI: 10.5958/0975-4377.2020.00021.X

S. No.	Brand name	Active ingredient	Dosage form	Reference
01.	taxotere	Docetaxel	Intravenous	62
02.	mithomycine	Mutamycin	Intravenous	63
03.	cytarabin	Cytosine arabinoside	Given by injection into vain	64
04.	taxol	Paclitaxel	Given by injection	65
05	Daunorubicin	Cerubidinedaunoxome	Injection solution powder for injection	66